Kroll, Sonja Katharina (2021). Mobility and subsistence of prehistoric societies in southern Central Asia and Iran: a multi-isotopic approach. (Thesis). Universität Bern, Bern
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Abstract
The aim of this interdisciplinary approach of natural sciences and archaeology was to investigate the mobility and subsistence of prehistoric communities settled in southern Central Asia and Iran using isotopic applications. This thesis is divided into two main aspects, on the one hand the isotopic description of Bronze and Iron Age populations in southern Central Asia. The concept arose as a sub-project of a larger scientific project consisting of the disciplines of archaeozoology, archaeobotany, isotope chemistry, paleogenetic, anthropology and morphology. The project is based at the Institute for Archéozoologie, Archéobotanique, Sociétés, Pratiques et Environnements (AASPE), and the Laboratoire Eco-anthropologie (UMR 7206) of the Muséum National d´Histoire Naturelle (MNHN, CNRS) in Paris, in cooperation with the Mission archéologique Franco-Ouzbèke Protohistoire (MAFOuz-P), the Mission archéologique franco-turkmène (MAFTur), and the French Archaeological Delegation in Afghanistan (DAFA). Focus are the sites Ulug Depe in southern Turkmenistan and Dzharkutan in southern Uzbekistan. Thanks to colleagues from the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) and the Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich who kindly provided further samples, it was possible to gain cross-regional results from the sites Tilla Bulak, Sapallitepa and Bustan in southern Uzbekistan, Bashman 1 in central Uzbekistan, and Gelot, Darnaichi, and Saridzhar in southern Tajikistan. Tepe Sialk on the central Iranian plateau represents the second sub-project, which includes the processing of the Ghirshman collection of the Louvre Museum and the Musée de l´Homme in Paris. Since the samples from Tepe Sialk did not coincide in time with the samples from Central Asia, covering only the Neolithic/Chalcolithic and Iron Age periods, Sialk was treated separately in this thesis. The selection of the sites and samples, in which the author was not involved, was made long before the work on this thesis started. The selection was determined by the state of preservation of the graves and very limited by the prevailing political situation in the particular countries. For this reason, it was unfortunately not possible to obtain a representative cross-section of space and time, or a uniform distribution of age and gender as well as the chronological periods, what significantly impacted the evaluation of the results and their relevance for further interpretations. The research area includes the Bronze and Iron Ages in Central Asia and the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and the late Iron Age on the Iranian Plateau. Towards the end of the 3rd mill. BCE two main cultural entities coexisted in Central Asia: The northern steppe territories were occupied by the Andronovo Cultural Community, while the south, present-day southern Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, northern Afghanistan, and northeastern Iran was the zone occupied by the Oxus Civilization (GKC, BMAC). Recent excavations in southern Tajikistan also evidenced the co-existence and merge of both traditions. The appearance of the Oxus Civilization is still not fully understood, but archaeological remains evidence urbanism and population growth, which caused major changes in southern Central Asian societies affecting also different aspects of the local subsistence economies. Larger settlements acted as structuring units for the surrounding land and main localities, where trade and distribution of food took place. Sophisticated irrigation systems opened up new territories and enabled them to settle also in hot and arid regions. Huge fortification systems argue for territorial boundaries, as well as the existence of property and its bureaucratic organisation. The large number of exotic artifacts indicated widespread connections and a certain role in the interregional trade network between Indus and Euphrates. The fall of the Oxus civilization is just as unclear as its appearance, but after a short, gradual transition period an economic and ideological shift took place. Southern Central Asia was then occupied by a mosaic of smaller cultures, known as the “Yaz I Cultures” or Handmade Painted Ware Cultures. The settlement pattern changed, the territory expanded further to the east, moreover surveys evidenced a pattern back to smaller villages, and de-centralized organisations units. Archaeological remains indicated luxury goods were replaced by utilitarian objects and agrarian tools. Adaptations of livestock husbandry and farming practices have been suggested, as well as a certain social homogenization of the societies since neither the material culture nor the architectural simplicity give any indication concerning the social organization or hierarchy. The questions that arise in Ulug Depe and Dzharkutan concerning nutrition habits and mobility are based on the general theories of pastoralism or seasonal movements to more fertile pastures, as well as possible changes in nutrition and mobility due to the rise and fall of the Oxus civilization. Whether the archaeologically documented developments regarding a hierarchically structured society or a centrally organized system had a direct influence on the diet of the people and their way of life. The case is similar in Sialk, where the research focus was on possible changes due to the intensification of agricultural land use in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, as well as ongoing urbanization processes in the proto-elamite period, or the external cultural influences during the Iron Age. The application of multi-isotopic investigations, here the combination of 87Sr/86Sr, δ18O, δ15N, and δ13C, represents in the meanwhile well-established methods to follow questions on mobility, possible migrations and dietary patterns of humans and animals. Strontium and oxygen isotopes (87Sr/86Sr, δ18O) out of tooth enamel and bones, enable the description of geological regions and groundwater sources, hence movements between different regions can be reconstructed, as well as migration rates. The characterization of strontium and oxygen isotopes, which depend on various factors, resulted in an iso-chemical differentiation of the particular regions and enabled despite some overlapping the identification of locals and non-locals. The reconstruction of the diet on the basis of nitrogen and carbon isotope analyses (δ15N, δ13C) was carried out on the same individuals. Nutrition analyses based on collagen out of bones provide information about the content of animal protein in the diet and the general proportion of meat, milk or other animal products. Moreover, insights into the content and type of plant resources are given, which can be used to reconstruct agricultural techniques, land use and climatic impacts. The evaluation included the results of 74 humans, 102 animals and 55 plants, respectively 167 strontium analyses, 133 collagen and 136 bioapatite analyses. A main part of this study was the determination of the isotopic background. Through the analyses of different local animal and plant species a picture of the regional geological conditions and the surrounding floral biome is given, with the aim is to classify the humans most reliably. The focus was on the one hand on the determination of numerous biologically available local strontium signals in the research area, ideally by means of sedentary animals such as rodents and different plant species. In addition to the three main sites Ulug Depe, Dzharkutan and Tepe Sialk, biologically available strontium signals were also determined from Tilla Bulak near Dzharkutan, from Bashman 1 south of the Nuratau Mountains, along the Gorgan Wall in Golestan, from North-Khorasan region, and the southern part of the Lut desert. In addition, numerous single rodents were analysed in order to create a cross-regional basis. Hence, individual strontium isotopic results from Geokchik Depe on the Turkmen Caspian Sea coast, as well as from Sangirtepe and Erkurgan in central Uzbekistan, Kalateh Khan in the Shahroud plain, Tepe Damghani in Semnan, Tepe Taleb Khan near Shahr-i Sokhte, Tepe Pahlavan and Sarvestan in Fars, and from Hasanlu and Tepe Zagheh in north-western Iran, can be presented. To determine the local oxygen signal and due to the lack of more suitable reference material than the animals, the available results of the databases were included. The basis of the nutrition analyses was laid using the highest possible variation of different animal species reflecting a broad spectrum of herbivores and carnivores, wild and domesticated, to characterize the trophic levels. The results displayed a positive correlation of δ15N and δ13C isotopes, as well as a strong influence of the climatic conditions in the investigated regions. The individuals of the early periods in Ulug Depe indicate the use of different water sources, hence a higher mobility. The results of domesticated sheep and goats show a diet similar to that of the wild gazelle, and therefore a more natural way of feeding and herding, in which humans and animals were more dependent on natural resources and water reservoirs. Whereas the people of the Oxus phases limited their use to a few water sources in the direct surroundings, indicating a more intensive land use and a rather sedentary way of life. All individuals from Ulug and Dzharkutan showed a diet that was little based on animal protein such as meat, fat or milk, but had a high proportion of vegetable components. In addition, the results indicate the consumption of wild animals rather than that of domesticated ones. The zoological investigations of the animal bones already indicated their own herds were kept for secondary production or trade rather than as primary food source, which has now been proved by the isotope analyses. The dietary variation concerning biological criteria like age, sex or the archaeologically indicated social position of the individuals, is only weakly reflected through the small sample number throughout all periods. Comparative diachronic evaluations showed the social and cultural changes coming along with the appearance of the Oxus civilization had no direct or significant impact on the diet of the humans in Ulug Depe, but on the animals. The results of the domesticated herbivores suggest changes in dietary habits, most likely due to developments in the livestock organisation. The Iron Age individuals from Ulug Depe and Dzharkutan again showed a different diet and mobility pattern. An enrichment in carbon can be observed for all human individuals, indicating a higher content of C4 plants in the diet, possibly caused by the consumption of millet, which was common in the 1st mill. BCE. Even if not grown locally, as in Ulug Depe, large-scaled trade connections are assumed by several colleagues. Additionally, increasing migratory impact can be observed, in Ulug both women, in Dzharkutan the one adult woman, were identified as non-locals. Despite the small number of samples, a general increase of mobility can be assumed. The residents of Tepe Sialk used different water sources through all times and had a comparatively high content of animal protein in their diet. The data conform with the consumption of meat, milk and dairy products of domesticated herbivores, but could also result from the consumption of freshwater fish, mussels or snails. However, the natural conditions in the surrounding region do not substantiate this. Throughout all periods the human diet displayed a high variety of different plant species, but no consumption of C4 plants or millet could be documented. Migration studies only identified women as non-natives, which might indicate a gender-specific pattern in Sialk but needs to be confirmed by further results. Paleogenetic studies have shown gene flow between northwest Iran and the Central Plateau over millennia. Migration studies delivered fundamental insights concerning the cultural relations and mutual impacts, as well as migration routes, directions, and distances. Ulug Depe demonstrate an exceptional high rate of immigration long before the appearance of Oxus and Andronovo. Burial ULG 56 delivered true evidence for long-distance migration, the combination of isotope and paleogenetic analyses displayed a genetic ancestry from the Swedish indigenous people (Sami) and an immigration from the north. The results demonstrate what distance a person can cover over a lifetime at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BCE, and how far the cultural connections and influences really went already in the early phases. Towards the end of the 3rd and beginning the 2nd mill. BCE the sites in southern Uzbekistan (Dzharkutan, Tilla Bulak, Sapallitepa, and Bustan) show highly diverse 87Sr/86Sr results, proving an active mobility among the inhabitants of the newly founded settlements. The people buried in Dzharkutan followed a complex mobility pattern, where movements between a person’s place of birth and residence in a limited area were a regular feature, observable throughout the centuries. In the same way movements are demonstrated between southern Uzbekistan and the neighboring communities in southern Tajikistan. Moreover, the Lady from Gelot delivered fundamental insights on the migration routes during the Bronze Age between regions which officially did not belong to a common cultural horizon. The results substantiate not only active exchanges between eastern Iran and southern Tajikistan, but also confirm the migration of people along routes known through trade of raw materials since the Neolithic times. The applications of multi-isotope approaches deliver meaningful and reliable results, if a statistically relevant sample number of human individuals, but also a wide range of reference material is available. The example of Ulug Depe clearly demonstrate how different results can be correlated to an overall picture if, in addition to humans, a broad spectrum of animals and plants is available in the sample pool. In addition, the results showed that detailed analyses of animals provide indispensable results for the elucidation of human ways of life. However, the problem of availability arose when working on old excavations. Nevertheless, the present data set showed that the study area is isotopically distinguishable, and even if only provisional statements can be made or tendencies shown due to the small sample number, this study presents the first detailed and cross-regional isotopic data from southern Central Asia and provide an excellent basis for future studies.
| Item Type: | Thesis |
|---|---|
| Dissertation Type: | Single |
| Date of Defense: | 30 September 2021 |
| Subjects: | 900 History > 930 History of ancient world (to ca. 499) |
| Institute / Center: | 06 Faculty of Humanities > Department of History and Archaeology > Institute of Archaeological Sciences |
| Depositing User: | Hammer Igor |
| Date Deposited: | 13 Aug 2024 06:35 |
| Last Modified: | 13 Aug 2024 22:25 |
| URI: | https://boristheses.unibe.ch/id/eprint/5352 |
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